9781422275719

Security Issues

Afghanistan China India Iran The Koreas

Mexico Russia Saudi Arabia Syria United Kingdom

Nations in the News:

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by Jennifer L. Rowan

MASON CREST Philadelphia • Miami

Security Issues Security

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Introduction....................................................................... 6 1 Security Issues............................................ 18 2 Government and Politics......................... 38 3 Economy...................................................... 54 4 Quality of Life.............................................68 5 Society and Culture. .................................86 Series Glossary of Key Terms.................................... 100 Chronology of Key Events.......................................... 105 Further Reading & Internet Resources.................... 107 Index................................................................................ 108 Author’s Biography...................................................... 1 1 1 Credits............................................................................. 1 1 2 Contents

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The Herat Citadel towers over Herat’s Old City—the most complete traditional medieval city in Afghanistan. The citadel is the oldest building in Herat and is believed to stand on the foundation of a fort built by Alexander the Great. Since it was built, it has served as a seat of power, a home for military troops, and a prison.

Afghanistan at a Glance

Total Land Area

251,827 square miles

Climate

Arid to semiarid; cold winters and hot summers

Natural Resources

Natural gas, petroleum, coal, iron ore, zinc, lead, barite, talc, chromite, salt, precious and semiprecious stones, arable land Agricultural land: 58.07 percent (20.5 percent arable land, 0.37 percent permanent crops, 79 percent permanent pasture); forest: 2.07 percent; other usage: 39.86 percent Kabul (4.012 million); Kandahar; Mazar-i-Sharif; Charikar; Herat; Jalalabad Southern Asia bordering China, Iran, Pakistan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan; plains in north and southwest; otherwise, mostly rugged mountains of the Hindu Kush; landlocked 25.5 percent of total population (2018)

Land Use

Urban Population

Major Urban Areas

Geography

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Introduction

Words to Understand Coup: A sudden takeover of a government. Insurgency: An organized movement aimed at overthrowing or destroy- ing a government. Mujahideen: Guerrilla fighters in Islamic countries. Patriarchy: A system of society or government in which power is held by men. Though diverse in ethnicities and rich in cultural traditions, it is the nation’s religion, Islam, that acts as both a binding force as well as a factor of division. Islam came to Afghanistan between 650 and 900 C.E. as a result of the Muslim conquests that swept across and out of Persia during those centuries. Almost every- one adheres to Islam, but conflict between Muslim sects and the political ambitions of the most prevalent ethnic groups prevent national unity. A s a landlocked country in central Asia, the region now known as Afghanistan has stood at the crossroads of empires from ancient to early modern times. Today, the country remains at the forefront of international attention as numerous terrorist organi- zations operate within its borders, and the ongoing war between the United States, its allies, and insurgency forces entered its 17th year in 2018. Untapped natural resources, underdeveloped infra- structure and industry, and agricultural practices that border on subsistence have contributed to long-term economic strife.Among the poorest nations in the world,Afghanistan struggles with low life expectancy and high infant mortality rates, and its citizens barely eke out a living—if they can do so at all—amid poor educational opportunities and ingrained cultural norms regarding patriarchy and gender roles.

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Two Afghanmen take part in prayer in their local mosque.

The unification of the Pashtun tribes in 1747 gave birth to the nation we know today as Afghanistan. For almost a century and a half, the nation acted as a pawn for the British in India to the south and the Russian Empire to the north, as both powerful nations vied for supremacy in Central Asia. It would be Great Britain that finally managed to exert some control over Afghanistan, invading in 1838 in the first of three Anglo-Afghan wars and installing Shah Shujah as king. British and Indian troops retreated in 1842 following Shujah’s assassina- tion, and the fleeing troops suffered a massacre on their way out of Kabul. Britain did not give up, however, and a second war from 1878 to 1880 resulted in a treaty that gave control ofAfghan foreign affairs to the British. The third Anglo-Afghan War began in 1919, when Emir Amanullah Khan declared independence from British influence.The war lasted only a few months, but a 1921 treaty rec- ognized Afghanistan’s independence. Amanullah attempted to introduce social reforms in 1926, but he fled the country three years later when his attempt resulted in civil

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This illustration depicts Afghan hillmen fighting during the war in the nineteenth century.

Introduction

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unrest.Afghanistan became amonarchy in 1933 with the ascension of Mohammed Zahir Shah; the monarchy would last for 40 years. The ColdWar brought its presence to Afghanistan in the early 1950s, when General Mohammed Daoud Khan became prime minister. He turned to the Soviet Union for economic and military aid,while simultaneously introducing social reforms that included such changes as allowing women to appear in public view. He was forced to resign his position after 10 years, and a constitutional monarchy was established in 1964. However, this move led to po- larized politics and struggles for power among multiple factions. Daoud appeared on the political scene again in 1973, when he staged a successful coup and declaredAfghanistan to be a republic. Conscious of the tension between the United States and the Soviet Union, Daoud attempted to strengthen his position by playing the Soviet Union against Western powers. A pro-Soviet coup in 1978 resulted inDaoud’s overthrow and assassination, and the first com- munist government was established. This government, however, found itself stymied by violence and infighting, and U.S.-backed mujahideen groups offered opposition as well. The Soviet army invaded in 1979, ostensibly to prop up the com- munist government in Kabul. Various mujahideen groups began fighting Soviet forces in 1980, with money and arms coming from the United States, Pakistan, China, Saudi Arabia, and Iran. The mujahideen created an alliance in 1985. By this time, an estimated 50 percent of the Afghan population were displaced by the war with the Soviet Union, with many refugees pouring into Iran or Pakistan. U.S. support for the mujahideen increased in 1986 with the provision of missiles capable of shooting down Soviet helicopter gunships. Peace accords came about in 1988, and the Soviet Union began pulling out its troops. The withdrawal of Soviet troops did not mean peace, however, as civil war continued as the mujahideen fought to overthrow the government.During the turbulent first half of the 1990s, theTaliban emerged, seized control of Kabul, and introduced a strict interpre- tation of Islam. Women were banned from working, and severe punishments were meted out, including stoning and amputation, for crimes perceived to be in contradiction to Islam. Pakistan and Saudi Arabia recognized the Taliban government as legitimate in

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Mohammed Daoud Khan

Introduction

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A Taliban opposition leader instructs his troops in the capital of Kabul.

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1997.TheUnitedNations (UN) imposed air embargoes and financial sanctions in an effort to press the Taliban to turn over Osama bin Laden for trial, to no avail. Bin Laden, a native of Saudi Arabia, had been part of theAfghan resistance during the Soviet occupation of the 1980s. By 1993, he establishedal-Qaeda,amilitant groupofMuslimextremists operating out of Afghanistan. Bin Laden orchestrated a number of terrorist attacks onWestern targets, including the use of truck bombs against American forces in Saudi Arabia and the bombing of U.S. embas- sies in Nigeria, Kenya, and Tanzania. From his stronghold in the mountains of Afghanistan and under the protection of the Taliban, bin Laden issued fatwas , or religious statements and declarations of holywar, against theUnited States.Hemasterminded the attacks on theWorldTrade Center in NewYork City and the Pentagon outside Washington, D.C., on September 11, 2001. The current ongoing conflict in Afghanistan began in October 2001, when the United States invaded the country following the September 11th attacks.TheTaliban’s government fell byDecember

OnMay 2, 2011, Osama bin Laden was killed by a teamof U.S. Navy SEALs in Pakistan. The next morning, news publications around the nation featured similar headlines to tell the public that the end of bin Laden’s terror was over.

Introduction

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A U.S. Black Hawk helicopter lands with its troops on a base in eastern Afghanistan.

of that year, and the Bonn Agreement was signed in Germany, set- ting up an interim government and calling for the ratification of a new constitution. Hamid Karzai was sworn in as interim president, and he would go on to be popularly elected in Afghanistan’s first democratic election of the twenty-first century.The newconstitution was ratified in January 2004, with presidential and parliamentary elections soon occurring. Meanwhile, the overthrow of the Taliban did not mean peace for Afghanistan. Foreign peacekeepers of the NorthAtlanticTreaty Organization (NATO) led the International SecurityAssistanceForce, marking the beginning of a long-term fight against theTaliban. By 2006,NATO assumed responsibility for security acrossAfghanistan, but militant groups and the rise of various terrorist organizations plagued the effectiveness of coalition and peacekeeping efforts. NATO implemented a withdrawal plan in 2012, beginning the pro- cess of turning over security responsibility to Afghan forces. The United States delayed troop withdrawal in 2015, citing concerns by newly elected president Ashraf Ghani. Since 2015,Afghanistan continues to face insurgency and instabil- ity as militant groups vie for power against theAfghan government.

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