9781422283295

Physics

Black Achievement I N SC I E NC E

Elijah McCoy

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Mason Crest

Black Achievement I N SC I E NC E

Biology Chemistry Computer Science Engineering Environmental Science

Inventors Medicine Physics Space Technology

Black Achievement I N SC I E NC E

Physics By DIANE BAILEY

Foreword by Malinda Gilmore and Mel Poulson, National Organization for the Advancement of Black Chemists and Chemical Engineers

Mason Crest 450 Parkway Drive, Suite D Broomall, PA 19008 www.masoncrest.com © 2017 by Mason Crest, an imprint of National Highlights, Inc.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, taping, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission from the publisher. Printed and bound in the United States of America. Series ISBN: 978-1-4222-3554-6

Hardback ISBN: 978-1-4222-3562-1 EBook ISBN: 978-1-4222-8329-5 First printing 1 3 5 7 9 8 6 4 2

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Bailey, Diane, 1966- author.

Title: Physics / by Diane Bailey ; foreword by Malinda Gilmore, Ph. D., Executive Board Chair, and Mel Poulson, Executive Board Vice-Chair, National Organization for the Professional Advancement of Black Chemists and Chemical Engineers (NOBCChE). Description: Broomall, PA : Mason Crest, an imprint of National Highlights, Inc., [2017] | “2017 | Series: Black achievement in science | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2016002447| ISBN 9781422235621 (hardback) | ISBN 1422235629 (hardback) | ISBN 9781422235546 (series) | ISBN 1422235548 (series) | ISBN 9781422283295 (ebook) | ISBN 1422283291 (ebook) Subjects: LCSH: African American physicists--Biography--Juvenile literature. | African American scien- tists--Biography--Juvenile literature. Classification: LCC QC15 .B34 2017 | DDC 530.092/396073--dc23 LC record available at http://lccn.loc.gov/2016002447

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Contents

Foreword, by Malinda Gilmore and Mel Pouson, NOBCChE . 6 Introduction. 8 Elmer Imes . 12 Shirley Ann Jackson. 18 Sylvester James Gates . 24 Estella Atekwana. 28 Arlie Petters. 32 Edward Thomas. 38 Nadya Mason. 44 Maggie Aderin-Pocock. 50 Careers in Physics . 54 Text-Dependent Questions . 60 Research Projects. 61 Find Out More . 62 Series Glossary of Key Terms. 63 Index/Author. 64

Key Icons to Look for

Words to Understand: These words with their easy-to-understand definitions will increase the reader’s understanding of the text, while building vocabulary skills. Research Projects: Readers are pointed toward areas of further inquiry connected to each chapter. Suggestions are provided for projects that encourage deeper research and analysis. Text-Dependent Questions: These questions send the reader back to the text for more careful attention to the evidence presented here. Series Glossary of Key Terms: This back-of-the-book glossary contains terminology used throughout this series. Words found here increase the reader’s ability to read and comprehend higher-level books and articles in this field. Educational Videos: Readers can view videos by scanning our QR codes, providing them with additional educational content to supplement the text. Examples include news coverage, moments in history, speeches, iconic moments, and much more!

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cience, Technology, Engineering and Mathe- matics (STEM) are vital to our future, the future of our country, the future of our regions, and the future of our children. STEM is everywhere and it shapes our everyday experiences. Sci- ence and technology have become the leading foundation of global development. Both subjects continue to improve the quality of life as new findings, inventions, and creations emerge from the basis of science. A career in a STEM disci- pline is a fantastic choice and one that should be explored by many. In today’s society, STEM is becoming more diverse and even internationalized. However, the shortage of Af- rican Americans and other minorities, including women, still exists. This series— Black Achievement in Science —re-

veals the numerous career choices and pathways that great African-American sci- entists, technologists, engi- neers, and mathematicians

By Malinda Gilmore, NOBCChE Executive Board Chair and Mel Poulson, NOBCChE Executive Board Vice-Chair

have pursued to become successful in a STEM discipline. The purpose of this series of books is to inspire, motivate, encourage, and educate people about the numerous career choices and pathways in STEM. We applaud the authors for sharing the experiences of our forefathers and foremothers and ultimately increasing the number of people of color in STEM and, more specifically, increasing the number of Af- rican Americans to pursue careers in STEM.

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Black Achievement in Science: Physics

Series Foreword

The personal experiences and accomplishments shared within are truly inspiring and gratifying. It is our hope that by reading about the lives and careers of these great sci- entists, technologists, engineers, and mathematicians, the reader might become inspired and totally committed to pursue a career in a STEM discipline and say to themselves, “If they were able to do it, then I am definitely able to do it, and this, too, can be me.” Hopefully, the reader will realize that these great accomplishments didn’t come easily. It was because of hard work, perseverance, and determination that these chosen individuals were so successful. As Executive Board Members of The National Organi- zation for the Professional Advancement of Black Chemists and Chemical Engineers (NOBCChE) we are excited about this series. For more than 40 years, NOBCChE has promot- ed the STEM fields and its mission is to build an eminent cadre of people of color in STEM. Our mission is in line with the overall purpose of this series and we are indeed committed to inspiring our youth to explore and contribute to our country’s future in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics. We encourage all readers to enjoy the series in its en- tirety and identify with a personal story that resonates well with you. Learn more about that person and their career pathway, and you can be just like them. with you. Learn more about that person and their career pathway, and you can be just like them.

Series Foreword

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T

he universe is a very no-nonsense ruler. Actual- ly, it is a bit of a dictator. It operates by a specific set of rules, which we call the laws of physics. It enforces these laws very strictly. They cannot be broken—it is impossible. They are also very far reaching. They apply to everyone and everything and everywhere. Enormous black holes are spinning in the outer reaches of the universe, billions of light years away. Tiny quarks—

less than 0.000000000000000001 meters long—are vibrating in- side the protons and neutrons of atoms. All of them, regardless of size or power, follow the laws of physics. Physics explains why hot things always cool off. It explains why the speed of light is always the same. It explains why what goes up always comes down—on Earth, at least. It may be comforting to see the word “always” so much, or it

The electrons and protons that swirl invisibly form and build all matter.

may be intimidating. Either way, it is not going anywhere. In physics, there are no exceptions. This does not mean there are no contradictions or mysteries in physics. In fact, there are plenty. Physicists struggle to understand why one

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Black Achievement in Science: Physics

Introduction

set of equations can describe the actions of some things, but does not work on others. The problem here is not physics, though—it’s the limits of human understanding. Physics is often called the most basic of all the sciences. Chemistry and biology also explain how natural systems work and interact, but they are still based on the funda- mental laws of physics. Without these underpinnings, none of it makes sense. Over thousands of years, humans have learned to adapt to the laws of physics without even thinking about it. We know that it hurts when falling objects hit us on the head, but we rarely put it in the form of an equation about accel- eration. We know that machines get hot when they operate, but we don’t usually explain it in terms of thermodynamics. Over those same thousands of years, though, there have been people who thought deeply about such things—and more. They asked questions such as: How did the universe begin? Where and when do space and time merge together? Why does matter sometimes act like it’s a bunch of parti- cles, while other times it moves in waves? Why does matter even matter? Does a star exploding trillions of miles away have any significance in our lives? As scientists have probed into the laws of physics, they have learned more details about how they work. Those dis- coveries have made enormous impacts on our lives. Knowl- edge of physics is critical to understanding how machines operate, for example. Without it, humans would not have been able to invent an airplane that would actually stay in

Introduction

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the air. The flight of an airplane may seem to defy the laws of gravity. In truth, it uses a complex blend of other phys- ical laws to simply overcome it—at least for a little while. Ever wonder how architects can build skyscrapers that are more than a hundred stories tall? It’s because they un- derstand how physics can be used to manage such enor- mous weight and stress. How about those high-perfor- mance sneakers? Their design is based on how different materials act under different conditions. Physics is always there, governing things that usually get very little attention. Take ketchup, for example. If you’ve ever tried to get stub- born ketchup out of a bottle, you know that shaking the bottle helps. That’s because stress (shaking) makes the fluid runnier, so that it flows more easily—and that’s all phys- ics. The list goes on, from X-rays and electricity to cars and cell phones. Virtually every invention and advancement in technology can be traced back to people who had a thor- ough understanding of physics. Many of the most recognized names in physics—Isaac Newton, Albert Einstein, Stephen Hawking—are those of white men. Historically, careers in the sciences have been mostly limited to white people, especially men. Even with- in the sciences, physics is among the most difficult fields to get into, and that’s especially true for African Americans. Unfortunately, they have endured decades of discrimina- tion, particularly in the United States. This has nothing to do with intelligence or ability; instead, it’s about opportu- nity and attitude. Studying physics requires a lot of educa-

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Black Achievement in Science: Physics

tion in science and math, and many people of color simply have not had those opportunities and when they did, they often faced prejudice from others who did not believe they could do the job. In spite of these hard- ships, there are exception- al black people who have

The work of physics professionals often touches different aspects of science.

achievedgreat things in science, both inAmerica andabroad. Although most scientists do not become famous, that does not make their contributions less important. Each scientist’s work adds another piece to the puzzle. Each viewpoint and research discovery helps shape our overall understanding. Black physicists have made vital contributions to this body of knowledge. The ones profiled in this book are examples of people who have worked over, through, or around ra- cial barriers. Some were pioneers in the field, proving that the pursuit of knowledge is open to everyone, regardless of race. Others have built on the discoveries made by earlier scientists. In any case, they all show that advances in sci- ence are a team effort. The laws of society sometimes favor one people over another, but the laws of physics treat us all the same. No exceptions. •

Introduction

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infrared spectroscopy a technique for using invisible, infrared light to interact with molecules and then create pictures of their movement quanta the smallest amount of something that can exist by itself, measured in a specific amount Words to Understand

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Black Achievement in Science: Physics

Chapter 1

Elmer Imes

Born: 1883 Died: 1941 Nationality: American Achievements: Leading early theorist in light and quantum physics.

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magine the year 1915. The world was in the grip of World War I, but in the United States, the ef- fects of a previous war—the Civ-

il War—were still being felt. The Civil War had torn the country apart over the issues of slavery and the rights of black people. Although more than 50 years had passed, the United States was still divided in the early 20th century. Schools, restaurants, and hotels were segregated. In the South, there were laws passed to discriminate against black people. There were not many educational or professional pathways open to blacks, espe- cially in a field like physics. There were a few opportunities, however, and Elmer Imes was determined to take ad- vantage of them. Both of his parents had gone to college, and he was raised in a household that valued education. By 1915, Imes had

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earned a bachelor’s and master’s degree in science from Fisk University, a historically black college in his hometown of Memphis, Tennessee. It was a good start, but the city of Memphis was in the South, the region of the country that was most hostile to blacks. Imes knew that he had to get the best education possible to excel in science and decided to attend a northern university to get his doctorate. He chose the University of Michigan, where he worked with many established and respected physicists and made a name for himself in the area of infrared spectroscopy . For his doctoral work at Michigan, Imes designed and built spectrometers, devices that detect light waves. The machines used infrared light (a type of light wave that is invisible to people, and that we feel as heat) to create high-resolution pictures. These pictures showed how mole- cules were moving in certain gases. Molecules can move in two ways: they can vibrate along the bonds that link their atoms, and they can rotate around their center of gravity. Research had already shown that the energy in vibrational movements came in specific amounts called quanta . Imes’s work would show that rotational movement also could be measured in quanta. These breakthroughs were important to quantum theo- ry, which was relatively new at the time. Even though there were established laws of physics, they did not always ex- plain everything that scientists observed. Scientists won- dered if quantum theory could explain physical occurrences that did not make sense using the laws of classical physics.

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Black Achievement in Science: Physics