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1980, the Saudis were willing to provide financial assistance. Eventually, Saudi Arabia loaned Iraq almost $26 billion. However, when the war finally ended in 1988, Saddam refused to repay the loan, insisting—as he had with Kuwait—that it should be consid- ered a grant, because Iraq had protected the Arab Gulf states from the danger of Iranian aggression. After Saddam invaded Kuwait, Saudi Arabia’s leaders feared their country would be next. The Saudi monarchy publicly opposed Iraq’s occupation of Kuwait and permitted the international coali- tion to use bases on Saudi soil. Saudi Arabia was a key member of the coalition. More than half a million soldiers were assembled on Saudi territory, and the attack on Iraq came from Saudi Arabia. The government also shut down an oil pipeline from Iraq that had been built in 1985, a move that constricted Iraq’s economy. Relations between Saudi Arabia and Iraq remained uneasy after the end of the 1991 Gulf War. However, when the United States was making its preparations to attack Iraq in late 2002 and early 2003, the Saudis refused to allow bases in their country to be used for the war against Saddam Hussein’s regime. Jordan was one of the few countries that did not condemn Iraq’s 1990 invasion of Kuwait. Jordan’s King Hussein made this decision in part because of fears about the stability of his own government. Jordan, which also borders Israel, has a large population of Palestinian Arabs. The Palestinians overwhelmingly supported Saddam Hussein, and the king was concerned that they might revolt and overthrow his monarchy if he joined the U.S.-led coali- tion against Iraq. Because Jordan is small, it has tried to maintain good relations with all of its neighbors. While Iraq was under international sanc- tions, Jordan received lucrative contracts to provide food in exchange for Iraqi oil. In November 2000 Jordan’s prime minister visited Baghdad, becoming the first leading member of an Arab gov-