9781422272657

COVID-19 DRONES AND SURVEILLANCE ENTERTAINMENT AND VIDEO GAMES LEGALIZING MARIJUANA MEDIA BIAS

REPARATIONS FOR SLAVERY CRIMINAL JUSTICE SYSTEM EDUCATION GUN CONTROL HEALTH CARE IMMIGRATION JOBS AND ECONOMY MENTAL HEALTH POVERTY AND WELFARE PRIVACY AND SOCIAL MEDIA RACE RELATIONS RELIGIOUS FREEDOM THE ENVIRONMENT GENDER EQUALITY

VIRGINIA M. FAIR

PH I L ADELPH I A | MI AMI

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contents

Chapter 1: Historical Overview of Drones and Surveillance ....... 7 Chapter 2: Are Surveillance Cameras the Best Way to Prevent Crime? ...............................27 Chapter 3: Is Facial Recognition Technology Too Invasive of Privacy?. ..........................................45 Chapter 4: Are Military Drone Strikes Unethical? .....................61 Chapter 5: Do Drones Need Stricter Federal Regulation? . ........81 Series Glossary of Key Terms....................................................100 Organizations to Contact.........................................................101 Further Reading.......................................................................102 Internet Resources...................................................................103 Chapter Notes. .........................................................................104 Index........................................................................................108 Author’s Biography and Credits...............................................112 K E Y I C O N S T O L O O K F O R : Words to Understand: These words with their easy-to-understand definitions will increase the reader’s understanding of the text while building vocabulary skills. Sidebars: This boxed material within the main text allows readers to build knowledge, gain insights, explore possibilities, and broaden their perspectives by weaving together additional information to provide realistic and holistic perspectives. Educational videos: Readers can view videos by scanning our QR codes, providing them with additional educational content to supplement the text. Examples include news coverage, moments in history, speeches, iconic sports moments, and much more! Text-Dependent Questions: These questions send the reader back to the text for more careful attention to the evidence presented there. Research Projects: Readers are pointed toward areas of further inquiry connected to each chapter. Suggestions are provided for projects that encourage deeper research and analysis. Series Glossary of Key Terms: This back-of-the-book glossary contains terminology used throughout this series. Words found here increase the reader’s ability to read and comprehend higher-level books and articles in this field.

WORDS TO UNDERSTAND

biometric authentication— a security process used in computer science that relies on the unique physical characteristics of an individual to verify identity, control access, or identify individuals in groups that are under surveillance. closed-circuit television (CCTV)— a system of televising by cable to designated viewing sets, as within a factory for monitoring production operations, in a theater for viewing a special event taking place elsewhere, or in an office building as an aid to maintaining security. Internet protocol— a set of rules governing the format of data sent over the Internet or another network.

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CHAPTER

HISTORICAL OVERVIEW OF DRONES AND SURVEILLANCE

1

In 1949, when George Orwell published his famous novel 1984 , people could not imagine a world in which everyone was under the scrutiny of a camera. Today, however, surveillance cameras are as inescapable as Orwell’s authoritarian Big Brother of 1984 . They’re in banks and stores. They’re in

schools, parking lots, and sports stadiums. They may even be in a neighbor’s doorbell. Video surveillance is used to observe specific areas so that authorities can intervene to prevent activities that are improper or illegal from occurring, or find those who were engaged in illicit activities on the premises. Video was still an emerging technology in Orwell’s time. The first television camera, which captured moving images electronically rather than on film, was invented in the late 1920s by an American engineer, Philo T. Farnsworth. During World War II in 1942, German engineers developed closed- circuit television (CCTV) cameras to observe the launch of V-2 rockets at Peenemunde Airfield from a safe distance.

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As the war progressed, American engineers developed similar systems to oversee their own military facilities. When the war ended, the American business community quickly recognized the value of CCTV systems to keep an eye on buildings and property. But because technology to record and store video images had not yet been developed, the footage had to be monitored constantly. The use of closed- circuit surveillance systems was limited to large companies that could afford to hire people to sit at monitors all day and watch the surveillance video in real time. It was not until the mid-1950s that video recording technology had advanced enough to allow surveillance footage to be recorded and stored for later viewing. This made video surveillance affordable and led to the addition of security cameras within banks and retail stores as extra protection against thieves.

Scan here to learn more about CCD technology.

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Contemporary Issues: Drones and Surveillance

“We are rapidly entering the age of no privacy where everyone is open to surveillance at all times where there are no secrets from government.” 1 —William O. Douglas, former US Supreme Court justice (1939–1975)

Another surveillance-related boost to crime prevention occurred in 1976, with the invention of couple-charged device (CCD) technology. This led to the development of cameras that could be used in low-light settings. These security camera systems used microchip technology to convert optical images to digital signals and led to the rise of round-the-clock video surveillance outdoors as well as indoors. CCD technology led to future innovations such as image sensors that used arrays of light cells to capture images. In 1996, Internet protocol (IP) cameras were introduced to the surveillance arsenal. Many security professionals felt that these devices represented a sorely needed improvement over the old CCTV cameras, since they did not use analog signals and coaxial cables. Instead, these cameras used digital signals and high-speed ethernet networks to send

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Historical Overview of Drones and Surveillance

The development of closed circuit television cameras enabled security officers to monitor several areas of a building or military facility simultaneously.

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Contemporary Issues: Drones and Surveillance

signals to the viewer. It took a while for users to get on board, since IP cameras were expensive, and the new technology required extensive networks. However, usage increased after the first high-resolution megapixel cameras were introduced in 2002. Today, people interested in video surveillance have a wide range of choices, from lower-cost consumer cameras to professional high-tech systems. Although some people complain that society has arrived at a time when “Big Brother is watching,” it is indisputable that surveillance cameras are here to stay. They have become so simple to install that not only do they watch our schools, businesses, and cities, they are increasingly installed in apartment buildings and private homes. Enhanced with software programs and artificial intelligence (AI), today’s surveillance devices can even read license plates and recognize faces. HOW FACIAL RECOGNITION WORKS Facial recognition is a concept first explored by mathematician and AI pioneer Woodrow Bledsoe during the 1960s. As its name suggests, facial recognition concentrates on a person’s features in order to establish or verify their identity. Today, facial recognition programs allow some smartphone users to unlock their phones or make a purchase without having to swipe a credit card. The technology can also be utilized to enable people to pass through airport security without needing to stop for an ID check.

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Historical Overview of Drones and Surveillance

Facial recognition has other uses besides serving as a personal convenience. Police agencies use facial recognition programs to identify persons of interest in criminal investigations or cases involving national security. In these instances, a person’s image that was captured in a real-time situation, either on live surveillance video or in a still image, is then compared to images of identified individuals that appear on the agency’s database. If the program determines that they match, their identity is established. Facial recognition software incorporates algorithms to mathematically map distinguishable facial features. These can be used to establish a data pattern that can be compared to data contained in the image of an identified person on its database, resulting in biometric authentication . Facial recognition algorithms have a wealth of material to draw from, thanks to today’s propensity for people to voluntarily upload photos to Facebook, Instagram, and other social media outlets. It also relies on data already captured on CCTV and network footage, as well as government collections of post-arrest mugshots, images on “most wanted” lists, and Department of Homeland Security (DHS) watch lists. The technology works by measuring and mapping the unique shapes and structures of a face, such as nose length and width, eye socket depth, and mouth width, as well as the proportional distance separating them, and uses them as dimensional landmarks. Next, an algorithm converts them to numerical data for use as a code, or “faceprint.” Like a

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Contemporary Issues: Drones and Surveillance

fingerprint, a faceprint is considered a unique biometric characteristic and can be used to find a match in the database’s stored images. If a match is found, it’s considered to be the person’s identity, unless circumstances that dispute it are found.

The proliferation of video surveillance cameras received a tragic boost after September 11, 2001, when Islamic extremists affiliated with the terrorist group al-Qaeda flew hijacked airliners into the World Trade Center in New York City and the Pentagon near Washington, D.C., killing nearly 3,000 people.

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Historical Overview of Drones and Surveillance

Facial recognition can also be deployed in real-time video surveillance, scanning frames captured at places where crowds of people accumulate—such as entrances and exits of football stadiums and concert venues, airplane debarkation points, and commuter train crowds during busy “rush hour” periods. The software freezes the frames and maps the faces contained on them, seeking matches on

Facial recognition software uses algorithms to mathematically map certain facial features. These can be compared to other photos to find an exact match in a database of images.

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Contemporary Issues: Drones and Surveillance