9781422273401

Crime Scene Collecting Physical Evidence

Crime Scene Collecting Physical Evidence Digital Forensics

Investigating Data DNA Profiling

Linking the Suspect to the Evidence Forensic Anthropology Identifying Human Remains Forensic Chemistry Detecting Drugs and Poisons Forensic Psychology

Probing the Criminal Mind Impression Evidence Identifying Fingerprints, Bite Marks, and Tire Treads Pathology Examining the Body for Clues

Crime Scene Collecting Physical Evidence

By Jennifer Rowan

MASON CREST PH I L ADELPH I A | MI AMI

Mason Crest PO Box 221876, Hollywood, FL 33022 (866) MCP-BOOK (toll-free) • www.masoncrest.com

Copyright © 2022 by Mason Crest, an imprint of National Highlights, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, taping, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Printed in the United States of America First printing 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Series ISBN: 978-1-4222-4464-7 Hardcover ISBN: 978-1-4222-4465-4 ebook ISBN: 978-1-4222-7340-1 Cataloging-in-Publication Data on file with the Library of Congress

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Introduction: Forensic Science and Criminal

Investigation ..........................................................7 Chapter 1: Assessing the Scene .............................................17 Chapter 2: The Body on Site . .................................................31 Chapter 3: Documenting Evidence . ......................................45 Chapter 4: Weapons ................................................................59 Chapter 5: The Crime Lab .......................................................73 Series Glossary of Key Terms ..................................................86 Further Reading & Internet Resources ..................................90 Index . .........................................................................................92 Author’s Biography ..................................................................95 Credits . ......................................................................................96 K E Y I C O N S T O L O O K F O R Words to Understand: These words with their easy-to-understand definitions will increase reader’s understanding of the text while building vocabulary skills. Sidebars: This boxed material within the main text allows readers to build knowledge, gain insights, explore possibilities, and broaden their perspectives by weaving together additional information to provide realistic and holistic perspectives. Educational Videos: Readers can view videos by scanning our QR codes, providing them with additional educational content to supplement the text. Text-Dependent Questions: These questions send the reader back to the text for more careful attention to the evidence presented there. Research Projects: Readers are pointed toward areas of further inquiry connected to each chapter. Suggestions are provided for projects that encourage deeper research and analysis. Series Glossary of Key Terms: This back-of-the-book glossary contains terminology used throughout this series. Words found here increase the reader’s ability to read and comprehend higher-level books and articles in this field.

Although the modern field of forensics is fairly new, people have been investigating crime scenes for centuries.

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Forensic Science and Criminal Investigation

The world of criminal investigation has long captivated the imaginations of people around the world. Depictions of detectives and crime solvers have shown up in books, movies, and television shows for decades, from Truman Capote’s novel In Cold Blood to the many iterations of the hit television series Law & Order . All of these fictionalized depictions rely on the elements of modern forensic science. But while books, movies, and television shows are designed primarily to entertain (and neatly solve a case in a given timeframe), the reality of criminal investigations contains many people and processes to solve a crime effectively. Further, investigations can take months or even years to solve, if they are definitively solved at all. A Short History of Forensics While today we think of forensics as a modern field of investigative study and techniques, people have utilized forensic investigation to solve crimes for centuries. Even in ancient times, people determined the manner of a death according to where a victim was found and the condition of the body. The ancient Chinese, for example, attempted to define the difference between a natural death and a death that occurred through suspicious activity or criminal intent, with the author Sung Tz’u writing the first text used as a guide by coroners. By the second half of the 1700s, scientists began developing techniques that allowed them to use chemistry to test for poisons and chemicals in the blood and other bodily fluids. Fingerprint patterns became a field of study in the early 1800s, though it took several decades for fingerprint analysis to become a means of personal identification and, as an extension, criminal investigations. Investigative analysis of hair and blood samples, bullet comparisons, documents and forgery, and photography continued to develop through the 19th and early 20th centuries, until what we would today consider modern forensic science became a key component of criminal investigations.

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Technological and scientific developments through the 20th century continued to improve the techniques used by, and the tools available to, investigators. Today, computers and other advanced technologies assist investigators faced with a crime to solve, often with greater accuracy and speed.

Jack the Ripper

During the last days of summer in 1888, London’s Whitechapel district was terrorized by multiple murders committed by a perpetrator known to police and the public as “Jack the Ripper.” The murders of five women occurred in just over a month’s time, with all the victims found within a mile of each other. Several organs had been removed from the bodies. The mutilated state of the women’s bodies all showed a distinct, methodical manner of killing that indicated the perpetrator possessed an advanced knowledge of human anatomy. Jack the Ripper sent letters to the detectives of the London Metropolitan Police Service (more commonly known as Scotland Yard), which contained taunts about his murderous activities and hinted at future attacks and murders. Investigators attempted to discover the identity of the killer, using several relatively new forensic techniques such as crime scene photography. The investigation also marked the first attempt at criminal profiling. Various theories pegged the perpetrator as anyone from a famous Victorian-era painter to the grandson of Queen Victoria. However, despite multiple attempts and claims of substantial evidence, Scotland Yard never succeeded in identifying Jack the Ripper. When the murders suddenly stopped in the fall of 1888, the mystery remained unsolved and prompted continued curiosity and questions from the citizens of London for decades. The case continues to spark interest around the world today, resulting in books, movies, television shows, and historical tours. But misinformation, false testimony, and the lack of definitive evidence, coupled with strict regulations followed by Scotland Yard, still prevent the solution to the Jack the Ripper murder case.

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In 1888, London’s Whitechapel district was terrorized by “Jack the Ripper.”

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Introduction: Forensic Science and Criminal Investigation

Investigative Agencies There are a number of investigative agencies that are tasked with solving crimes in the United States. Each operates at a different level of jurisdiction, from local police departments to state and federal investigative bodies. Local police usually take on the initial steps in a criminal investigation, including securing and assessing the scene, gathering and analyzing evidence, and submitting such evidence and accompanying notes to prosecutors. Local police hold jurisdiction over a specific municipality, county, or region and derive their authority from the local governing body. At the county level, most states grant authority to sheriff’s offices, tasking deputy sheriffs with enforcement of state and federal law. Sheriffs’ responsibilities may also include the response to emergency calls for areas that lay outside local police jurisdictions. At the state level, criminal investigations proceed under the jurisdiction of either the state police or highway patrol. Each state in the United States has a state bureau of investigation that oversees the operation of all state police and highway patrol units. While state police can investigate on their own, they often collaborate with local police in situations where the needed resources or jurisdictional boundaries exceed those of local police. Some police agencies hold special jurisdiction, even within other agencies’ jurisdictions. For example, government buildings, parks, and schools often have police who hold special jurisdiction only over those areas. They provide the same services as local police and sometimes coordinate with local police in terms of resources or personnel. Multiple investigative agencies exist at the federal level, many of which are overseen by different government departments. For example, the United States Secret Service and United States Customs and Border Protection both operate under the auspices of the U.S. Department of Homeland Security (DHS), while the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) operates under the U.S. Department of Justice (DOJ). Many federal agencies focus on criminal activity that threatens aspects of national security, such as terrorism, counterintelligence, or organized crime. They may assist in state or local investigations if agencies at those jurisdictional levels request assistance or if a case proves to be high profile. Each branch of the U.S. military possesses its own investigative agency that focuses specifically on crimes related to or affecting servicemembers. These agencies are the Naval Criminal Investigative

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Multiple investigative agencies exist at the federal level.

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Introduction: Forensic Science and Criminal Investigation

Service (NCIS), the United States Air Force Office of Special Investigations (Airforce OSI), and the United States Army Criminal Investigative Division (Army CID). The United States Coast Guard is its own investigative body and operates under the Department of Homeland Security (DHS). Becoming a Forensic Scientist The field of forensic science encompasses a number of career paths, each with its own specific training and education requirements. The different career paths include: forensic medical examiner, forensic engineer, forensic accountant, crime scene investigator, and crime laboratory analyst. In general, all areas of forensic science require at least a bachelor’s degree in the field, or in a field that is related, such as physics, chemistry, or biology. These courses are usually included in a forensic science degree program as well. Other courses typically included are biochemistry, criminal justice, statistics, pharmacology, and often computer modeling. Because of the need for forensic scientists to possess strong communication skills, both written and oral, the American Academy of Forensic Sciences recommends that various English classes be included in a course of study. English courses, especially those that focus on writing and oral delivery of information, help prepare future forensic scientists for the task of writing reports as well as testifying in court. While a bachelor’s degree provides generalized preparation for work in the field of forensic science, individuals looking to specialize in such areas as ballistics, toxicology, or digital sciences may choose to pursue a master’s degree. Such programs often include laboratory courses designed to help master’s degree candidates work on practical skills. Research and the development of a thesis can also be part of a master’s program in forensic science. Possession of a master’s degree qualifies an individual for future promotions to such positions as crime laboratory manager or supervisor. Doctoral programs may also be required for certain specialized fields. For example, forensic psychiatrists and pathologists must hold a medical degree in order to practice in their field, while individuals who wish to specialize in forensic jurisprudence must hold a law degree and belong to at least one state bar. Often upon the completion of a degree program, individuals may decide to complete an apprenticeship or training program under the guidance of a senior forensic scientist. These programs may be part of the hiring process for new graduates or exist as a type of probationary period for recent hires.

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Master’s degree programs include laboratory courses to help work on practical skills.

Forensic Science Certifications and Additional Training Depending on the field of specialization, some forensic scientists must hold certain professional credentials and certifications. Forensic scientists who operate as medical doctors must have a valid medical license. The American College of Forensic Examiners, the American Board of Criminalists, and the International Association for Identification offer certifications in a variety of voluntary specializations. These specialties include crime scenes, forensic photography, latent prints, and bloodstains. Specialized credentials indicate expertise in particular areas of forensic science. In addition to degree programs and the acquisition of specialized credentials, forensic scientists continue their education on the job. New employees of investigative organizations may receive training on scientific topics like biochemistry, or attend workshops dealing with the processes of materials handling, courtroom testimony, or techniques of forensic analysis. Continuing education classes provide opportunities for

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Introduction: Forensic Science and Criminal Investigation

forensic scientists to stay up-to-date on technologies, techniques, and other innovations in the field that will help them on the job. Forensic scientists can also join accredited organizations or professional boards, like the American Academy of Forensic Sciences or the National Institute of Justice. Such organizations, in addition to providing certification opportunities, act as communities that assess, recognize, and monitor their members throughout their careers. Forensic Science Career Outlook Career opportunities for forensic scientists vary, depending on the exact field or specialization an individual pursues. The federal government of the United States is the highest-paying employer of forensic scientists, though the majority of forensic scientists find employment with local governments and law enforcement agencies. The U.S. Department of Labor’s Bureau of Labor Statistics reports that the career field of forensic science is forecast to grow by 14 percent between 2018 and 2028. Approximately 16,700 forensic science jobs existed in 2018; the projected growth would add 2,400 new jobs by 2028. Advances in science and technology help to increase the reliability and usefulness of forensic information in court proceedings, which in turn will increase the need for well-trained forensic science technicians with many specializations. Large caseloads at the state and local levels are also expected to prompt an increase in new hires. Due to strong competition in the field, individuals who choose to obtain a master’s degree will be at the forefront of the application pool. Salaries for forensic scientists vary, depending on level of education and area of specialization, as well as the agency or organization where a forensic scientist is employed. For example, the average annual salary for forensic scientists in May of 2018 was reported to be $58,950 for local government agencies and $59,250 for state government agencies. Forensic scientists in the employ of the federal government earned over $107,000 in 2016. At the same reporting term, individuals who worked for testing laboratories earned $48,000 on average, while those working in medical or diagnostic laboratories earned an average salary of $40,650.

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