9781422273425

DNA Profiling Linking the Suspect to the Evidence

Crime Scene Collecting Physical Evidence Digital Forensics

Investigating Data DNA Profiling

Linking the Suspect to the Evidence Forensic Anthropology Identifying Human Remains Forensic Chemistry Detecting Drugs and Poisons Forensic Psychology

Probing the Criminal Mind Impression Evidence Identifying Fingerprints, Bite Marks, and Tire Treads Pathology Examining the Body for Clues

DNA Profiling Linking the Suspect to the Evidence

By Amy Sterling Casil

MASON CREST PH I L ADELPH I A | MI AMI

Mason Crest PO Box 221876, Hollywood, FL 33022 (866) MCP-BOOK (toll-free) • www.masoncrest.com

Copyright © 2022 by Mason Crest, an imprint of National Highlights, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, taping, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Printed in the United States of America First printing 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Series ISBN: 978-1-4222-4464-7 Hardcover ISBN: 978-1-4222-4467-8 ebook ISBN: 978-1-4222-7342-5 Cataloging-in-Publication Data on file with the Library of Congress

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Introduction: What Is DNA Profiling? . .................................... 7 Chapter 1: How DNA Profiling Works . ................................. 17 Chapter 2: Identifying Suspects with DNA..................... 31 Chapter 3: Paternity, Ancestry, and Population Genetics ................................................................ 45 Chapter 4: Proving Innocence with DNA ............................. 59 Chapter 5: The Future of DNA Profiling ............................... 73 Series Glossary of Key Terms ................................................. 86 Further Reading & Internet Resources ................................. 90 Index . ........................................................................................ 92 Author’s Biography ................................................................. 95 Credits . ..................................................................................... 96 K E Y I C O N S T O L O O K F O R Words to Understand: These words with their easy-to-understand definitions will increase reader’s understanding of the text while building vocabulary skills. Sidebars: This boxed material within the main text allows readers to build knowledge, gain insights, explore possibilities, and broaden their perspectives by weaving together additional information to provide realistic and holistic perspectives. Educational Videos: Readers can view videos by scanning our QR codes, providing them with additional educational content to supplement the text.

Text-Dependent Questions: These questions send the reader back to the text for more careful attention to the evidence presented there.

Research Projects: Readers are pointed toward areas of further inquiry connected to each chapter. Suggestions are provided for projects that encourage deeper research and analysis. Series Glossary of Key Terms: This back-of-the-book glossary contains terminology used throughout this series. Words found here increase the reader’s ability to read and comprehend higher-level books and articles in this field.

DNA profiling uses genetic markers from biological evidence to identify suspects in crimes.

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What Is DNA Profiling? DNA profiling uses genetic markers from biological evidence to identify suspects in crimes or to identify family relationships. DNA, short for deoxyribonucleic acid , is the genetic material inside of cells that all life forms (animals, plants, and humans) use to reproduce cells and maintain life. Although every human being is unique, 99.9 percent of our DNA is actually identical to everyone else’s. Our uniqueness comes from the one- tenth of one percent of DNA that is unique and uniquely arranged inside of our cells. Even identical twins have some differences in their DNA that can be identified through sophisticated DNA profiles. DNA profiles can identify probable, though not certain, origins of biological evidence found at crime scenes. They can also help to reveal family relationships, including fathers, mothers, children, siblings, and more distant ancestral relationships. They can also be used to identify people who have been victims of natural or human-caused disasters. For example, DNA profiling helped to identify victims of a massive tsunami in Thailand in 2004. It also helped to identify the remains of people who died in the September 11, 2001, attacks on the World Trade Center in New York City. DNA profiling began in the 1980s with DNA fingerprinting, invented by Dr. Alec Jeffreys, a British scientist. Dr. Jeffreys developed an electrostatic technique that created a bar-like pattern of DNA in photo-sensitive gel. He had hoped to find a cure for rare genetic illnesses, but ended up creating a method that solved crime, including the murders of two girls in a town close to the university where he worked. To create a reliable DNA profile, trained analysts must follow a strict process to prevent contamination and misidentification. They analyze DNA evidence and interpret it using contemporary techniques. DNA profilers produce a chart called an electropherogram, which shows genetic markers called alleles , which indicate individual DNA characteristics that can be identified and compared.

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DNA Profiling Specialties DNA profiling has advanced since Dr. Alec Jeffreys first developed it in the 1980s. DNA profiling specialties and other types of DNA analysis include: • Criminal or investigative DNA profiling • Ancestry or family-relationship DNA analysis and profiling • Paternity testing for civil cases or family court • Medical research, including rare disease research • Genomics, including whole genome sequencing Most people who work with DNA samples and analysis will work in a criminal investigation division of a police or other law enforcement agency. Private businesses that offer services to law enforcement can also provide DNA testing. Some police departments send biological samples to commercial DNA testing labs for analysis. People who analyze DNA for medical research, including the development of treatments for diseases like cancer or Alzheimer’s disease, often work at universities or at government-funded research labs. Private paternity-testing facilities perform DNA testing to determine whether a person is or is not the father of a child, often for child support or family court cases. Other labs test biological samples for personal genetic information, especially to determine ancestry or genetic heritage. Several companies, including Ancestry.com and 23andMe, provide private ancestry DNA profiling services. DNA in Civil and Family Court Paternity testing using DNA can confirm whether a man is the father of a child or not. Millions of “over-the-counter” DNA paternity tests are sold each year, but they can’t be used in a court proceeding. Courts use independent lab testing and verification to determine paternity in cases of child support, divorce, and custody. Immigration applications provide another use for paternity or maternity claims. The United States, the United Kingdom, Canada, France, Australia, and other countries ask that immigrants prove they are entitled to immigrate and are related to the people they say they are. Paternity tests to confirm relationships among family members seeking to immigrate to various countries are performed by accredited laboratories.

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Paternity testing using DNA can confirm whether a man is the father of a child or not.

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Introduction: What Is DNA Profiling?

Cities and apartment complexes can also use DNA testing to identify dog waste and track down owners who aren’t picking up after their dogs. Services with names like “Poo Prints” can test dog feces and report a

match to registered pets in a specific area. Legal and Ethical Concerns

DNA samples can provide probable identification in crimes but never completely certain identification. DNA analysts are responsible for testifying accurately and explaining their results to juries and judges. They are also responsible for a high standard of ethics when testifying in court and preparing reports, since they are dealing with people’s unique identities and potential legal penalties. If DNA samples include genetic information frommore than one person, analysts need to use their experience and judgment to create a report and identify the people who may have contributed a sample. Work Environment DNA analysts work primarily in labs. If they are part of the justice system, they will analyze samples that are gathered by crime scene investigators or law enforcement officers. Analysts are responsible for ensuring a chain of custody over evidence and storing it in such a way that preserves its

Commercial Uses for DNA Profiling

DNA has become big business. Private DNA testing companies have developed innovative products that are used in law enforcement, in civil court cases, and to enforce regulations like picking up dog waste. Companies like Parabon NanoLabs have created commercial uses for DNA analysis, including DNA facial reconstruction, which has helped to identify unknown crime victims, missing persons, and cold-case criminals who may have thought they had gotten away with murder for years.

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integrity. Some DNA profilers may be asked to report to the scene of a crime to collect evidence or assist in an investigation, but larger law enforcement agencies have a separation of duties. DNA specialists should be comfortable working in a laboratory and using complex scientific equipment to examine biological material. Biological material that contains DNA can include blood, saliva, and other body fluids. These fluids can include biohazards, including infectious diseases, so DNA analysts need to be comfortable with proper safety precautions. Sometimes DNA evidence can be found in feces, vomit, or mucus. In those cases, analysts try to analyze as small an amount as possible to get reliable results. Analysts also work with computers to prepare results. They will need to be familiar with DNA analysis and reporting software, and often they will need to be able to write reports. While many DNA reports are automated and simply need to be filled out with data, if analysts are called to testify in court, they need to understand evidence standards andmust be trained in how to answer questions truthfully, in a way that judges and juries can understand.

Over 200 medical treatments using gene therapy were being developed as of February 2020.

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Introduction: What Is DNA Profiling?

Career Opportunities Over 200 medical treatments using gene therapy were being developed as of February 2020. Research technicians assist pharmaceutical companies in developing medicines using DNA or conducting DNA assays and analysis as part of pharmaceutical product development. DNA is currently used to identify several forms of cancer. Life sciences companies offer DNA testing for a broad range of purposes, from paternity testing to medical care and targeted treatments for cancer. For example, the Center for Cancer Genomics at the Dana-Farber Cancer Institute in Boston, Massachusetts, hires research technicians who use gene sequencing and genome-wide analysis techniques to conduct cancer research and to develop individualized medicine based on the genetic characteristics of patients. Some of the techniques used include next-generation gene sequencing. The position requires a bachelor’s or master’s degree in molecular biology or biochemistry. Other professionals in the field don’t perform individual analysis or gene sequencing. Instead, they are genetic data analysts who work with the large amount of genetic data that has already been collected, to uncover broader patterns and relationships between genetic information and disease. These jobs can require a master’s degree in bioinformatics, statistics, or computational biology. Forensic DNA analysts can work for government agencies, local law enforcement crime labs, and private DNA analysis labs which can consult for defense attorneys or law enforcement agencies. Forensic DNA analysts usually must have a bachelor’s degree and experience identifying samples which can contain DNA for analysis. They must also be able to document their work processes and prepare case notes, as well as maintain a chain of custody over evidence. Some private DNA analysis companies contract with law enforcement organizations worldwide. Their employees may be called upon to analyze and identify evidence in war-torn regions or to help identify victims of natural disasters. Other Emerging Careers in Genetics Genomics, DNA analysis, and population genetics are advancing rapidly. Career opportunities that were unheard-of a few years ago are now emerging. Some of these careers may combine prior disciplines, like DNA analysis and forensic anthropology. Together, a DNA facial reconstruction

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Forensic DNA analysts can work for government agencies, local law enforcement crime labs, and private DNA analysis labs.

and a traditional forensic-anthropology two- or three-dimensional facial reconstruction can help to identify unknown victims of crimes, natural disasters, or terrorist attacks. In 2002, there were only about 250 publicly funded forensic crime labs in the United States. By 2015, there were over 400, and of those, 88 percent were accredited by a professional association. About 15 percent of the public crime labs conduct DNA-related research, which is a new development in the field. Deep ancestry is a field of DNA analysis that can help to determine ancestry or heritage dating back thousands of years. It uses either mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) analysis, which traces female ancestry, or Y-chromosome analysis to trace broad population trends. Several private, for-profit DNA testing ancestry services help people to trace their ancestry back several generations.

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Introduction: What Is DNA Profiling?

Although some claims have proven to be controversial, DNA analysis companies offer personalized diet and exercise advice based on DNA profiles and genetic heritage. A company called DayTwo offers personalized dietary programs using DNA and other medical information for people with diabetes. DayTwo’s services are based on large longitudinal clinical studies correlating DNA profiles with nutrition and exercise benefits for health, particularly type 2 diabetes. DayTwo also analyzes microbiomes (the microbes that live in our digestive tract) to provide additional personalized nutritional and dietary advice. One of the most interesting emerging careers in DNA involves the use of DNA to design tiny machines on a nano scale. Nano is short for nanotechnology , and it refers to technology that operates on a scale of less than 100 nanometers. (A nanometer is one-billionth of a meter.) Nanotechnology can involve manipulating or working with individual molecules and atoms. DNA is used to build tiny clamps that hold molecules in place while experiments are conducted. It is also used to build DNA machines that contribute to DNA and RNA research projects. Some nanotechnology machines are created using “DNA origami.” Like the ancient paper-folding technique from Japan and China, DNA origami folds segments of DNA into complex shapes to build tiny nano-scale machines. Occupational Outlook The career outlook for people who want to work with DNA in a lab varies. Genetic counselors who work with families to understand the risks of inheritable diseases will grow 28 percent, from 3,000 to 3,800 jobs, between 2018 and 2028. Being a genetic counselor requires a master’s degree along with certification from the National Society of Genetic Counselors or the American Board of Genetic Counseling. Genetic counselors usually work for large medical centers, university-based medical centers, or large health systems. Forensic science technicians who work with DNA for a law enforcement agency or commercial DNA testing lab are also part of a fast- growing field. The Bureau of Labor Statistics projects that the job field will grow by 14 percent between 2018 and 2028. By 2028, over 19,000 people will be working as forensic science technicians, including DNA testing. According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, forensic science technicians with bachelor’s degrees earned an average of $58,230 per year in 2018, while genetic counselors with master’s degrees earned an average of $80,370.

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