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of things—the “how,” not the “why.” But human reasoning and debate could not always give accurate answers. Fourteenth-century French astronomer Nicole Oresme said that reason was not enough to prove whether the Earth moved or stood still. Ultimately, before Galileo, most people went back to the authoritative books of the ancient philosophers to find their answers. But changes were happening. There were signs of a new step forward. Doctors and anatomists at Padua were starting to question the observations of the Greek authority on medicine, Galen. Some of Aristotle’s ideas about motion were coming under scrutiny. And, in the theory of music, experiments were showing that Pythagoras’s mathematical basis of harmony did not match what was actually heard. Galileo’s own father, Vincenzio, was a key figure in this field, and he carried out many experiments on musical harmony. The Early Years Galileo Galilei, the oldest of seven children, was born in Pisa on February 15, 1564. As a child, he was immensely interested in music. He became a brilliant lute player and adored poetry and literature all his life. However, Vincenzio Galilei wanted his eldest son to study medicine, and so in 1581 Galileo enrolled at the University of Pisa. But he discovered the delights of mathematics rather than medicine. When his father heard that Galileo was likely to fail his exams, he was very concerned. A doctor could find a well-paid position anywhere, but where could a mathematician go? Galileo enjoyed the geometry of Euclid and the way that Archimedes applied his mathematics to

Opposite page: During Galileo’s lifetime, Europe looked very different than it does today, as the modern boundaries of nations had not yet been established. The re- gion that today includes the country of Italy was made up of many small kingdoms, including the Duchy of Tuscany, based in Florence and ruled by the Medici family. Other powerful city-states included Venice, Parma, and Milan. Lands ruled by the Roman Catholic Church were known as the Papal States.

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