9781422282854

THE MAKING OF THE MODERN WORLD 1 94 5 TO THE P R E S ENT

Science and Technology

John Perritano

Series Advisor: Dr. Ruud van Dijk, Contemporary History and History of International Relations, University of Amsterdam

THE MAKING OF THE MODERN WORLD

1 94 5 TO THE P R E S ENT

Science and Technology

BOOKS IN THE SERIES

Culture and Customs in a Connected World Education, Poverty, and Inequality Food, Population, and the Environment Governance and the Quest for Security Health and Medicine Migration and Refugees Science and Technology Trade, Economic Life, and Globalization Women, Minorities, and Changing Social Structures

THE MAKING OF THE MODERN WORLD

1 94 5 TO THE P R E S ENT

Science and Technology

John Perritano

SERI ES ADVI SOR Ruud van Dijk

Mason Crest

Mason Crest 450 Parkway Drive, Suite D

Broomall, PA 19008 www.masoncrest.com

© 2017 by Mason Crest, an imprint of National Highlights, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, taping, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission from the publisher.

Produced and developed by MTM Publishing. www.mtmpublishing.com

President: Valerie Tomaselli Designer: Sherry Williams, Oxygen Design Group

Copyeditor: Lee Motteler, GeoMap Corp. Editorial Coordinator: Andrea St. Aubin Proofreader: Peter Jaskowiak

ISBN: 978-1-4222-3641-3 Series ISBN: 978-1-4222-3634-5 Ebook ISBN: 978-1-4222-8285-4

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Perritano, John, author. Title: Science and technology / by John Perritano.

Description: Broomall, PA : Mason Crest, [2017] | Series: The making of the modern world: 1945 to the present | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2016004304| ISBN 9781422236413 (hardback) | ISBN 9781422236345 (series) | ISBN 9781422282854 (ebook) Subjects: LCSH: Science—History—20th century—Juvenile literature. | Technology—History—20th century—Juvenile literature. | Civilization, Modern—20th century—Juvenile literature. | Twentieth century—Juvenile literature.

Classification: LCC Q126.4 .P47 2017 | DDC 609.04--dc23 LC record available at http://lccn.loc.gov/2016004304

Printed and bound in the United States of America.

First printing 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

QR CODES AND LINKS TO THIRD PARTY CONTENT You may gain access to certain third party content (“Third Party Sites”) by scanning and using the QR Codes that appear in this publication (the “QR Codes”). We do not operate or control in any respect any information, products or services on such Third Party Sites linked to by us via the QR Codes included in this publication, and we assume no re- sponsibility for any materials you may access using the QR Codes.  Your use of the QR Codes may be subject to terms, limitations, or restrictions set forth in the applicable terms of use or otherwise established by the owners of the Third Party Sites.  Our linking to such Third Party Sites via the QR Codes does not imply an endorsement or sponsorship of such Third Party Sites, or the information, products or services offered on or through the Third Party Sites, nor does it imply an endorsement or sponsorship of this publication by the owners of such Third Party Sites.

4

MIGRATION AND REFUGEES SCIENCE A D TECHNOLOGY

Contents Series Introduction 6 CHAPTER 1: Science and the Aftermath of World War II 9 CHAPTER 2: Big Ideas, Big Science 19 CHAPTER 3: New Avenues of Research and a Thaw in the Cold War 29 CHAPTER 4: MAD, Personal Computers, and Engineering Nature 35 CHAPTER 5: Brave New Worlds 43 CHAPTER 6: Science, Technology, and the Present Day 51 Timeline 58 Further Research 60 Index 61 Photo Credits 63 About the Author and Advisor 64

5

CONTENTS

Series Introduction I n 1945, at the end of World War II, the world had to start afresh in many ways. The war had affected the entire world, destroying cities, sometimes entire regions, and killing millions. At the end of the war, millions more were displaced or on the move, while hunger, disease, and poverty threatened survivors everywhere the war had been fought. Politically, the old, European-dominated order had been discredited. Western Euro- pean democracies had failed to stop Hitler, and in Asia they had been powerless against imperial Japan. The autocratic, militaristic Axis powers had been defeated. But their victory was achieved primarily through the efforts of the Soviet Union—a communist dictatorship—and the United States, which was the only democracy powerful enough to aid Great Britain and the other Allied powers in defeating the Axis onslaught. With the European colonial powers weakened, the populations of their respective empires now demanded their independence. The war had truly been a global catastrophe. It underlined the extent to which peoples and countries around the world were interconnected and interdependent. However, the search for shared approaches to major, global challenges in the postwar world—symbol- ized by the founding of the United Nations—was soon overshadowed by the Cold War. The leading powers in this contest, the United States and the Soviet Union, represented mutually exclusive visions for the postwar world. The Soviet Union advocated collec- tivism, centrally planned economies, and a leading role for the Communist Party. The United States sought to promote liberal democracy, symbolized by free markets and open political systems. Each believed fervently in the promise and justice of its vision for the future. And neither thought it could compromise on what it considered vital interests. Both were concerned about whose influence would dominate Europe, for example, and to whom newly independent nations in the non-Western world would pledge their alle- giance. As a result, the postwar world would be far from peaceful. As the Cold War proceeded, peoples living beyond the Western world and outside the control of the Soviet Union began to find their voices. Driven by decolonization, the devel- oping world, or so-called Third World, took on a new importance. In particular, countries in these areas were potential allies on both sides of the Cold War. As the newly independent peoples established their own identities and built viable states, they resisted the sometimes coercive pull of the ColdWar superpowers, while also trying to use them for their own ends. In addition, a new Communist China, established in 1949 and the largest country in the developing world, was deeply entangled within the Cold War contest between communist and capitalist camps. Over the coming decades, however, it would come to act ever more independently from either the United States or the Soviet Union. During the war, governments had made significant strides in developing new tech- nologies in areas such as aviation, radar, missile technology, and, most ominous, nuclear

6 SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

energy. Scientific and technological breakthroughs achieved in a military context held promise for civilian applications, and thus were poised to contribute to recovery and, ultimately, prosperity. In other fields, it also seemed time for a fresh start. For example, education could be used to “re-educate” members of aggressor nations and further Cold War agendas, but education could also help more people take advantage of, and contrib- ute to, the possibilities of the new age of science and technology. For several decades after 1945, the Cold War competition seemed to dominate, and indeed define, the postwar world. Driven by ideology, the conflict extended into politics, economics, science and technology, and culture. Geographically, it came to affect virtual- ly the entire world. From our twenty-first-century vantage point, however, it is clear that well before the Cold War’s end in the late 1980s, the world had been moving on from the East-West conflict. Looking back, it appears that, despite divisions—between communist and capitalist camps, or between developed and developing countries—the world after 1945 was grow- ing more and more interconnected. After the Cold War, this increasingly came to be called “globalization.” People in many different places faced shared challenges. And as time went on, an awareness of this interconnectedness grew. One response by people in and outside of governments was to seek common approaches, to think and act globally. Another was to protect national, local, or private autonomy, to keep the outside world at bay. Neither usually existed by itself; reality was generally some combination of the two. Thematically organized, the nine volumes in this series explore how the post–World War II world gradually evolved from the fractured ruins of 1945, through the various crises of the Cold War and the decolonization process, to a world characterized by inter- connectedness and interdependence. The accounts in these volumes reinforce each other, and are best studied together. Taking them as a whole will build a broad understanding of the ways in which “globalization” has become the defining feature of the world in the early twenty-first century. However, the volumes are designed to stand on their own. Tracing the evolution of trade and the global economy, for example, the reader will learn enough about the polit- ical context to get a broader understanding of the times. Of course, studying economic developments will likely lead to curiosity about scientific and technological progress, social and cultural change, poverty and education, and more. In other words, studying one volume should lead to interest in the others. In the end, no element of our globalizing world can be fully understood in isolation. The volumes do not have to be read in a specific order. It is best to be led by one’s own interests in deciding where to start. What we recommend is a curious, critical stance throughout the study of the world’s history since World War II: to keep asking questions about the causes of events, to keep looking for connections to deepen your understand- ing of how we have gotten to where we are today. If students achieve this goal with the help of our volumes, we—and they—will have succeeded. — Ruud van Dijk

7

SERIES INTRODUCTION

Soviet stamp celebrating the launch of Sputnik in 1957.

WORDS TO UNDERSTAND behemoth: object of massive proportions.

carbon cycle: exchange of carbon between living organisms and the environment. geopolitical: relating to the influence of geography on international politics, and vice versa. incendiary: containing flammable chemicals. isotopes: forms of an element with the same atomic number but different numbers of neutrons. satellite: human-made object that circles the Earth or another object in the heavens.

8

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

W alter Sullivan was hot on the story. It was the first week of October 1957, and the New York Times science reporter was primed to write a notice for the Sat- urday edition reporting that the Soviet Union was about to launch the world’s first space satellite into orbit. The news wasn’t far-fetched. Weeks earlier, the Soviets had launched their first intercontinental ballistic missile, one designed to carry a weapon between continents, so the idea of a human-made spacecraft circling the globe came as no surprise to Sullivan. Sullivan never got a chance to publish the story, as speculation turned to reality. Sullivan was at a cocktail party on October 4 at the Soviet embassy in Washington, D.C., when a wire-service alert fromMoscow reported the Russians had indeed placed the satellite in orbit. The news rocked the world. Named “Sputnik,” the Russian word for “fellow traveler,” the satellite was the size of a basketball and weighed only 184 pounds (83 kg), but it scared many people. U.S. officials seemed shocked, although the launch should not have come as a surprise. The administration of President Dwight D. Eisenhower and the military had been warned numerous times that the Soviets were on the cusp of launching the satellite. Eight days into Sputnik’s round-the-world journey, U.S. defense officials began to comprehend its significance. As they listened to Sputnik’s constant beep on the radio, they became increasingly disturbed by the Soviets’ ability to hurl such a hefty sphere 560 miles (901 km) above Earth. Sputnik could have easily been a nuclear warhead. They and others knew that Sputnik was a game-changer in the age of atomic weapons. When Percival Brundage, Eisenhower’s budget director, went to dinner with socialite and diplomat Perle Mesta, he commented that no one would remem- ber Sputnik in six months. “Yes, dear,” Mesta answered, “and in six months we may all be dead.” C H A P T E R 1 Science and the Aftermath of World War II

9

CHAPTER 1

Wars of Technology T he flight of Sputnik was a direct result of immense technological advances made during World War II. The war was not only a battle between the Allies (Britain, China, the Soviet Union, the United States, and others) and the Axis powers (Germany, Italy, and Japan), but also it had a profound effect on science. Both sides made significant technological discoveries during the war. Nazi Ger- many pioneered advances in rocketry, and the United States developed the world’s first nuclear weapons. Chemical labs cooked up new compounds, including napalm, which the Americans used in incendiary bombs. Radar, using waves of energy to detect enemy aircraft, was put into widespread use, changing the face of battle. Scien- tists also developed practical articles such as plastic wrap (used as a covering for guns during transport) and cardboard milk and juice containers. As World War II ended, the Cold War, a political and ideological battle between the communist world (led by the Soviet Union) and the Western democracies (led by the United States), began. Science and technology took center stage in a geopolitical struggle that would last nearly fifty years. Nations spent much of their treasure trying

to outdo each other technologically. Governments recruited scientists in support of national defense as both sides increased spending on scientific research projects, many of which had military applications. In the United States, for example, the Office of Naval Research was created in 1946 to encourage “sci- entific research in recognition of its paramount importance in the pres- ervation of national security.” Four years later, the government created the National Science Foundation not only to advance “national health, prosperity, and welfare,” but also to “secure the national defense.” The defense needs of the Cold War also changed the focus of many scientists. Mathematicians, for ex- ample, were called on to “model” various conventional and nuclear warfare situations, while computer

British military launch of a German V-2 rocket during Operation Backfire in Cuxhaven, Germany, in 1945. The launch was conducted to demonstrate the rocket to Allied military personnel.

10

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

scientists were asked to develop more computing capacity to meet the needs of the military. In 1953, the year Eisenhower took office, government and industry in the United States spent roughly $5.6 billion on various scientific research and development (R&D) programs. That number skyrocketed to $165.3 billion by the end of the Cold War in 1992. After the war, U.S. allies were also on the move techno- logically. However, they operated independently in one key area—nuclear weapons. At the beginning of the Cold War, the McMahon Act, which went into effect in 1947, restricted non– U.S. scientists from accessing information on nuclear research. The arrangement created a rift between the United States and Britain and led to Britain developing its own nuclear weapons program. In 1958, the U.S. Congress enacted a law that eased restrictions on sharing information, which began a closer alli- ance between the two countries on mutual security issues. The French also took on amore independent way of think- ing when it came to science and technology. Devastated and impoverished by World War II, the French, despite opposition from the United States, quickly embarked on their own nucle- ar weapons program. It was slow going, but by 1960 France had become a nuclear power, and it would soon become one of the world’s largest producers of nuclear energy. Figuring out what the Soviet Union spent on scientific research and development was always problematic because of the Russian tendency toward secrecy. The U.S. Central Intelligence Agency, however, estimated that the Soviets spent an average of $75.8 billion a year on “military pro- grams” between 1951 and 1964. The United States spent $86 billion a year. Between 1965 and 1989, the Soviets spent an average of $252 billion a year, while the United States spent $242 billion. In Communist China, scientific development had a more practical need as party leaders tried tomodernize industry, ag- riculture, and national defense. The idea was to be self-reliant. Sciencemeant something totally different to the Chinese than to Americans and Soviets. As one historian put it, figuring out how to use manure could count as “scientific farming.” For the Chinese, science had become a part of the revolution, which could free the country from archaic ways of thinking.

IN THEIR OWN WORDS U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower On the “Military-Industrial Complex” This conjunction of an immense military establishment and a large arms industry is new in the American experience. The total influence—economic, political, even spiritual—is felt in every city, every statehouse, every office of the federal government. We recognize the imperative need for this development. Yet we must not fail to comprehend its grave implications. Our toil, resources and livelihood are all involved; so is the very structure of our society. In the councils of government, we must guard against the acquisition of unwarranted influence, whether

sought or unsought, by the military-industrial complex. — From Eisenhower’s final public address as president, January 17, 1961.

11

CHAPTER 1

Race to Space T he space race and nuclear weapons research underscored the ideological disparities between Cold War opponents. Spurred by the success of Sputnik, the United States undertook a full-court press to gain superiority in missile delivery systems and in rockets that could propel humans into outer space. The Americans, British, and other Western countries had a distinct advantage over Soviets at the end of World War II. Abundant natural resources, advanced economies, and lack of devastation in the United States gave the former allies a head start. Additionally, the U.S. spirited off former Nazi rocket scientists instrumental in Germany’s V-2 rocket program, among other scientific initiatives. One of them was

ESCAPE TO THE VICTORS With the Soviets marching

westward, Werner von Braun and his team decided to surrender to the Americans, fearful of what the Russians might do to them. On May 2, 1945, von Braun’s brother, also a rocket engineer, spotted a U.S. army private near the town of Oberammergau in the Bavarian Alps. The Nazis had moved von Braun’s team to the location so they wouldn’t fall into enemy hands. As von Braun’s brother walked up to the private, he called out, “My name is Magnus von Braun. My brother invented the V-2. We want to surrender.”

RIGHT: Werner von Braun in front of four F-1 engines mounted on the Saturn V S-IC rocket, which launched U.S. astronauts to the moon. Von Braun led U.S. efforts to build the rocket systems after he surrendered to U.S. forces at the end of World War II.

12

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

the leading German scientist Werner von Braun, who would lead the American space and missile programs, which were overseen by separate civilian and military agencies. Other scientists and engineers were part of an East-to-West “brain drain.” Even before the war, Jewish and other scientists fled the Nazis, who were on the rise in Ger- many. This movement of intellectual might resulted in a brain drain to Allied countries. To be sure, the Soviet Union gained its share of German scientists after the war, but the Allies, especially the United States, were the victors in the scientific migration game. Scientists Unite I n the 1950s, fear was rising among scientists of all nationalities—in the East and West—as the next generation of nuclear weapons was being developed. Thermo- nuclear weapons—or hydrogen bombs (H-bombs for short)—promised much more destruction than those dropped on Japan, and scientists began to warn their govern- ments of the dangers. On July 9, 1955, a declaration was delivered at a press conference in London. Signed by Albert Einstein and Bertrand Russell, along with Max Born, Frederic Joliot-Curie, and Hideki Yukawa, among others, its warnings were bleak: “ The best authorities are unanimous in saying that a war with H-bombs might possibly put an end to the human race.” The declaration led to the first of the Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs, which would take place in Pugwash, Nova Scotia, in 1957. Computer Revolution C old War competition resulted in a number of scientific milestones, especially in computer technology. The computer was born during World War II, when both sides worked furiously to harness computing power to their war machines. Konrad Zuse, a German engineer, is considered to have built the first working programmable com- puter in 1941. The Z3 was a massive machine of mechanical relays and switches that weighed about a ton. Nazi engineers used the gigantic computer to design airplanes. British scientists and engineers also contributed to computing history at Bletchley Park, where the Colossus, the world’s first electronic digital computer, one capable of being programmed, was unveiled in 1944. Two years later, in 1946, a U.S. company unveiled a thirty-ton behemoth called ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer), which was much faster and easier to program than the Colossus machines. Instead of using relays as switches, ENIAC used 18,000 vacuum tubes, similar to the tubes used in the first TV sets. Other milestones followed, and one of the next important breakthroughs happened when the computer’s programs could be stored and executed from the computer’s memory—an innovation implemented in the Manchester Mark 1, developed at Brit- ain’s University of Manchester.

13

CHAPTER 1

ENIAC, or Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer, developed in 1946, was so large that it was housed in a room of its own.

While ENIAC, Colossus, and others might look like dinosaurs compared to to- day’s computers, they were nothing short of groundbreaking. The Soviets were not to be outdone. In 1949 they built MESM, the Russian acronym for “Small Electronic Counting Machine.” With its 6,000 vacuum tubes and its insatiable thirst for elec- tricity, MESM made quick calculations that the Soviets then used to build better and more destructive nuclear weapons. By 1951, scientists had upgraded MESM and increased its speed to 50 operations per second. During those early years of the Cold War, advances in computer science and tech- nology seemed to come nearly every day. Transistors—small electronic devices that carry and enhance the power of an electrical current—eventually replaced the vacuum tube and changed the face of computing yet again. By 1953, transistorized computers were in operation, including a portable computer that was installed in the bombing control of a U.S. Air Force C-131 aircraft. Integrated Circuits W hile transistors were groundbreaking, the invention of the integrated circuit took computer technology to a completely new level. The integrated circuit was the brain- child of Jack Kilby, a scientist at a technology company called Texas Instruments. He invented the circuit in 1958. By that time, transistors were common in phones, radios, and toys. Scientists wanted something smaller.

14

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY