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Toltec warrior sculptures at the central-Mexican archaeological site of Tula.

of mathematics, astronomy, and art. The Maya erected many buildings and monuments, making a network of city-states that united rural and urban pop- ulations. By the ninth century, a great part of Mayan civilization mysteriously collapsed; scholars believe this could have been due to environmental factors, such as a drought, or perhaps a foreign invasion or widespread disease. Two powerful empires followed the Mayans: the Toltec and the Aztec. It is believed that the Toltecs were originally a tribe from north of Teotihuacán. When that city finally fell in the eighth century, they migrated to central Mex- ico, where they established the capital city of Tula. The Toltec Empire spread outward, often by use of violent force, to claim parts of Mexico, present-day Guatemala, and the Yucatán. After dominating the region for two centuries, the Toltecs were defeated by the Chichimeca, a roving band of tribes from northern Mexico, at the start of the twelfth century. The Aztecs were a migrant group that came to prominence after founding the city of Tenochtitlán in 1325. In 1428 they formed the “Triple Alliance” with two neighboring cities, Texcoco and Tiacopan. Together the Alliance ruled over cen- tral Mexico as the Aztec Empire for the next ninety years. At its peak, the empire

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CHAPTER ONE: HISTORY, RELIGION, AND TRADITION