9781422273432

Forensic Anthropology Identifying Human Remains

Crime Scene Collecting Physical Evidence Digital Forensics

Investigating Data DNA Profiling

Linking the Suspect to the Evidence Forensic Anthropology Identifying Human Remains Forensic Chemistry Detecting Drugs and Poisons Forensic Psychology

Probing the Criminal Mind Impression Evidence Identifying Fingerprints, Bite Marks, and Tire Treads Pathology Examining the Body for Clues

Forensic Anthropology Identifying Human Remains

By Amy Sterling Casil

MASON CREST PH I L ADELPH I A | MI AMI

Mason Crest PO Box 221876, Hollywood, FL 33022 (866) MCP-BOOK (toll-free) • www.masoncrest.com

Copyright © 2022 by Mason Crest, an imprint of National Highlights, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, taping, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Printed in the United States of America First printing 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Series ISBN: 978-1-4222-4464-7 Hardcover ISBN: 978-1-4222-4468-5 ebook ISBN: 978-1-4222-7343-2 Cataloging-in-Publication Data on file with the Library of Congress

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Introduction: What Do Forensic Anthropologists Do? . ........ 7 Chapter 1: The Origins of Forensic Anthropology . ............ 19 Chapter 2: Cause of Death: Analyzing Skeletal Remains ................................................................ 33 Chapter 3: Facial Reconstruction and Forensic Anthropologist Artists ........................................ 47 Chapter 4: Disasters and Mass Murder ................................ 61 Chapter 5: The Future of Forensic Anthropology . ............. 73 Series Glossary of Key Terms ................................................. 86 Further Reading & Internet Resources ................................. 90 Index . ........................................................................................ 92 Author’s Biography ................................................................. 95 Credits . ..................................................................................... 96 K E Y I C O N S T O L O O K F O R

Words to Understand: These words with their easy-to-understand definitions will increase reader’s understanding of the text while building vocabulary skills. Sidebars: This boxed material within the main text allows readers to build knowledge, gain insights, explore possibilities, and broaden their perspectives by weaving together additional information to provide realistic and holistic perspectives. Educational Videos: Readers can view videos by scanning our QR codes, providing them with additional educational content to supplement the text.

Text-Dependent Questions: These questions send the reader back to the text for more careful attention to the evidence presented there.

Research Projects: Readers are pointed toward areas of further inquiry connected to each chapter. Suggestions are provided for projects that encourage deeper research and analysis. Series Glossary of Key Terms: This back-of-the-book glossary contains terminology used throughout this series. Words found here increase the reader’s ability to read and comprehend higher-level books and articles in this field.

Forensic anthropologists work with human remains, such as unearthed bones in an excavation.

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What Do Forensic Anthropologists Do? Modern forensic anthropologists have used their skills to uncover the cause of death in countless crimes. They have solved ancient crimes as well, from providing more clues in the case of “The Princes in the Tower” in London to learning the cause of death of a 14-year-old girl whose remains were uncovered in a hearth at the early settlement of Jamestown in Virginia. Analysis of the girl’s skeleton concluded that she had been cannibalized after death, proving that Jamestown’s settlers were starving during the winter of 1609–10. Bone-analysis techniques include photographs and x-rays. Forensic anthropologists also use CT (computed tomography) scans and microscopes. Analysis of deoxyribonucleic acid or DNA, the material that carries genetic information in a living organism, is included in several forensic disciplines. DNA is most often used in forensic anthropology to identify ancient remains or unidentified victims. Isotope analysis, which helps to identify the different atomic masses or weights of specific elements like carbon, indicates the age of bones and what people typically ate over periods of time during their lives. Isotope analysis may even provide information that can indicate where a person grew up or where they lived before they died. According to Smithsonian forensic anthropologist Kari Bruwelheide, “The bones are like a time capsule.” Forensic photographic techniques can help to identify deceased people by superimposing an image of a skull on photos of missing persons. Facial reconstruction is a specialized field that helps bring the faces of the dead to life. Using information gathered frommany thousands of people, standards for facial tissue thickness are rebuilt, providing amazing likenesses of people based on their bones. Forensic anthropology is sometimes divided into three main areas of research. These include the study of skeletons, or forensic osteology ; the process of carefully gathering human remains for analysis, or forensic archaeology ; and the study of how bodies decompose or

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are otherwise altered by their environments after death, or forensic taphonomy . Forensic anthropologists should be familiar with all three areas of research in order to investigate and solve crimes. Through their analysis, they can determine factors such as the age, sex, and ancestry of a victim, all of which can lead to identification and a sense of closure for the victim’s family. As of 2019, there were approximately 200 people with a Ph.D. in forensic anthropology in the United States. The separate field of forensic anthropology emerged in the 19th century as a way for physical anthropologists—people who studied how physical traits and culture are related—to help solve crimes or identify bodies. Forensic anthropologists today can work for government agencies, museums, or colleges and universities, or as independent consultants. Few people work full- time analyzing the remains of unidentified crime victims. Instead, they combine their investigations and research with college teaching, consulting, and research to advance knowledge in the field. Education Requirements The American Board of Forensic Anthropology (ABFA) advises students who want to become forensic anthropologists to obtain an education in biological or physical anthropology. Practicing forensic anthropologists need a Ph.D. or master’s degree. Graduate studies include courses in anatomy, probability and statistics, archaeology, and other methods and techniques essential for work in the field. The majority of forensic anthropologists work in academia, as college teachers or academic researchers. According to the ABFA, there are few job opportunities for people with only bachelor’s degrees in forensic anthropology. They report that relatively few people practice forensic anthropology full time. Instead, forensic anthropologists combine their expertise with other work, including college teaching, law enforcement, and work for government organizations. Beyond the basic education requirements, forensic anthropologists can obtain additional credentials after proving themselves in the field. The ABFA offers a certification program for experienced forensic anthropologists. Applicants must not only demonstrate proficiency in forensic anthropology techniques, but also demonstrate upstanding moral character within their communities. Successful applicants are awarded the title of Diplomate with the ABFA.

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Forensic Anthropology

Students who want to become forensic anthropologists should obtain an education in biological or physical anthropology.

Job Responsibilities Since the majority of forensic anthropologists are college or university teachers, they are usually expected to teach three to four classes per semester, representing 12 to 15 hours a week in the classroom. They will also spend 20 to 30 additional weekly hours grading, preparing lessons, and working with other college faculty members. College- and university- based forensic anthropologists also conduct research and publish the results in peer-reviewed journals. Some forensic anthropologists who work at colleges and universities can be “on call” to law enforcement at the local, state, and national levels. They need to be prepared to respond to high-profile cases 24 hours a day. Forensic anthropologists with doctoral degrees can be asked to supervise trainees and students. Those who work outside of academia can also teach part-time at local colleges and universities.

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Introduction: What Do Forensic Anthropologists Do?

Other career roles include work with the medical examiner or coroner in larger cities, or for the U.S. military or other governmental agencies. Another career path could be working for museums, although those positions are rare. Forensic anthropologists employed at museums are tasked with analyzing human remains to discover more about the history of an individual or culture. The National Museum of Natural History at the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, D.C., has a collection of 30,000 sets of human remains from populations all over the world, including over 1,700 complete skeletons from the late 19th to mid 20th century. Whether they work directly for a college or university or for a government organization, forensic anthropologists usually belong to professional associations and participate in conferences, including internationally. They can give lectures, write books, and in some cases be interviewed by television news reporters or documentary filmmakers.

Speaking for the Dead

Many forensic anthropologists enter the field because they want to make a difference for the families of people who have died. They use their skills to discover the identities of unidentified remains, and they can inform families of the circumstances surrounding peoples’ deaths. A 2015 museum exhibit sponsored by Arizona State University’s School of Human Evolution and Social Change (SHESC) was titled “Speaking for the Dead.” The exhibit included a case study of migrants who had died while attempting to cross the border between Arizona and Mexico, one of the harshest desert environments on earth. Interactive features allowed the public to see how investigators used bones to identify the ages, genders, and heights of deceased migrants. Accompanying artwork provided further information about the migrants’ stories and cultures.

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Forensic Anthropology

Forensic anthropologists can travel to remote locations to recover and study remains.

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Introduction: What Do Forensic Anthropologists Do?

Work and Travel Forensic anthropologists work with human remains. Whether they unearth bones in an excavation or analyze human remains discovered at a crime scene, some of the work involves unpleasant sights, smells, and health hazards. The American Board of Forensic Anthropology notes, “Working with human remains can be smelly.” The smells may be unpleasant, but a greater danger comes from the risk of infection. Forensic anthropologists work in labs with fume hoods to reduce odors, and use tools including exam tables, dissection equipment, microscopes, and other technology such as CT scanners. Forensic anthropologists can travel to remote locations to recover and study remains. They also can be required to trek across rough territory or to work in extreme weather, from desert heat to frozen Arctic tundra. They will wear protective clothing while working at crime scenes and historical excavations. Forensic anthropologists can also use high- tech equipment to discover the location of remains, including aerial surveys, magnetometers, and ground-penetrating radar (GPR). Changing Practices Like all areas of study, the field of forensic anthropology continues to evolve. New discoveries, scientific advances, and ethical considerations have all led forensic anthropologists to modify their practices over time. One current controversial issue that might change forensic practices in the future is the threat to privacy posed by DNA databases. In some instances when a person has taken a genetic test voluntarily, such as to discover more about his or her ancestry, law enforcement agencies have been able to access their genetic data to help solve crimes. The data of the person’s distant relatives may also be accessible due to shared heredity and similarity in DNA. Proponents of this method say it helps law enforcement resolve cases and bring perpetrators to justice. Opponents argue that such collection of DNA data is a gross violation of privacy, and risks wrongly implicating people in crimes. Respect for the Dead Forensic anthropology is a relatively new branch of anthropology and the criminal justice system. In the beginning, only a few people studied bones. They had limited equipment and were discovering the science as they went along. One approach taken by some early physical or forensic

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Forensic Anthropology

The threat to privacy posed by DNA databases is a controversial issue that might affect forensic practices in the future.

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Introduction: What Do Forensic Anthropologists Do?

Some early forensic anthropologists were essentially “grave robbers.”

anthropologists is something that the field now agrees should be left in the past: Some early forensic anthropologists were essentially “grave robbers.” They dug up graves all over the world to analyze the bones of different native peoples. Grave robbing is an ancient phenomenon. The tombs of Egyptian pharaohs were robbed as soon as grave robbers could devise a way to tunnel in and steal their buried gold and jewels. But 19th-century anthropologists traveled to communities around the world and unearthed graves without family or community permission. Massive collections of bones and skulls were transported from world locations to the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, D.C., and other major universities and museums. African American and Native American graveyards were plundered for scientific research purposes.

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Forensic Anthropology