9781422273456

Forensic Psychology Probing the Criminal Mind

Crime Scene Collecting Physical Evidence Digital Forensics

Investigating Data DNA Profiling

Linking the Suspect to the Evidence Forensic Anthropology Identifying Human Remains Forensic Chemistry Detecting Drugs and Poisons Forensic Psychology

Probing the Criminal Mind Impression Evidence Identifying Fingerprints, Bite Marks, and Tire Treads Pathology Examining the Body for Clues

Forensic Psychology Probing the Criminal Mind

By Katherine Lacaze

MASON CREST PH I L ADELPH I A | MI AMI

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Introduction: Forensic Psychology at a Glance . ................... 7 Chapter 1: Developing and Using Profiles .......................... 17 Chapter 2: Determining Motives . ........................................ 31 Chapter 3: Narrowing Suspects . ......................................... 45 Chapter 4: Evaluating Defendants ....................................... 59 Chapter 5: Expert Testimony ................................................ 73 Series Glossary of Key Terms ................................................. 86 Further Reading & Internet Resources ................................. 90 Index . ........................................................................................ 92 Author’s Biography ................................................................. 95 Credits . ..................................................................................... 96 K E Y I C O N S T O L O O K F O R Words to Understand: These words with their easy-to-understand definitions will increase reader’s understanding of the text while building vocabulary skills. Sidebars: This boxed material within the main text allows readers to build knowledge, gain insights, explore possibilities, and broaden their perspectives by weaving together additional information to provide realistic and holistic perspectives. Educational Videos: Readers can view videos by scanning our QR codes, providing them with additional educational content to supplement the text.

Text-Dependent Questions: These questions send the reader back to the text for more careful attention to the evidence presented there.

Research Projects: Readers are pointed toward areas of further inquiry connected to each chapter. Suggestions are provided for projects that encourage deeper research and analysis. Series Glossary of Key Terms: This back-of-the-book glossary contains terminology used throughout this series. Words found here increase the reader’s ability to read and comprehend higher-level books and articles in this field.

Forensic psychology meshes the complex science of human behavior with the judicial system.

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Forensic Psychology at a Glance Forensic psychology meshes the complex science of human behavior with the judicial system by probing the minds, behaviors, and emotions of both criminals and victims. The American Psychological Association defines forensic science as “the application of clinical specialties to the legal arena,” which includes police investigations, courts, and the corrections system. Underneath the broad umbrella of forensic psychology, practitioners can pursue various specializations and hold a variety of positions within the legal system. Forensic psychologists and psychiatrists are called on to perform a variety of job functions, which may include: • Profiling victims and criminals • Evaluating a suspect’s mental state at the time of committing a crime • Testing suspects for mental illness • Conducting interviews • Evaluating potential jurors • Performing psychological screenings for potential law enforcement officers • Performing research and experiments • Documenting findings • Testifying in court On the job, forensic psychologists are exposed to intense, even traumatic information and experiences, which can make the work mentally and emotionally draining at times. Additionally, while popular crime shows and movies portray forensic work as exhilarating and critical to solving cases both frequently and rapidly, the real world is different. Forensic psychologists must work meticulously, and there are limitations to how their skills can be applied to investigations, trials, convictions, and rehabilitation. Nevertheless, forensic psychology is a diverse and

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constantly evolving field that can be uniquely rewarding for those who go into it with realistic expectations, a commitment to objectivity, and a passion for exploring the truth. The Intertwining of Law and Psychology: A History The field of forensic psychology has grown substantially over the past few decades, with the American Psychological Association officially recognizing the practice as a specialization within psychology in 2001. Part of the intrigue and fascination surrounding forensic psychology can be attributed to how its use is portrayed in the media, including popular crime shows such as CSI and The Profiler . The introduction of psychology into law can be traced back to Wilhelm Wundt, who opened the first formal laboratory for psychological research at the University of Leipzig in Germany in the year 1879. The institute’s opening is widely considered as the beginning of modern psychology. Over the next several decades, several notable psychologists—including Lewis Terman, William Marston, William Stern, Albert von Schrenck-Notzing, James McKeen Cattell, and Alfred Binet— contributed research and experimentation that probed the application of psychology to law and criminal justice. Their work also delved into specific subjects such as the suggestibility of witnesses, intelligence testing, and court reporting. In 1908, Hugo Munsterberg, a German-American psychologist, published the work On the Witness Stand, which advocated for the use of psychology in the courtroom. Forensic psychology started to gain traction after the conclusion of World War II. Psychologists began to provide expert testimony in trials, including the well-known 1954 case of Brown v. Board of Education . In 1962 another case, Jenkins v. United States , provided a definition for expert witnesses and a standard for the admissibility, or the ability of something to be allowed as evidence in a court, of neuropsychological evidence in criminal cases. As a result of that ruling, the use of psychologists as expert witnesses became more pervasive among federal, state, and local courts in the following years. The discipline is still growing. For example, there are about 3,000 members who are part of the American Psychology-Law Society. According to Dr. Patricia Zafp, a clinical and forensic psychologist in New

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Forensic Psychology

The introduction of psychology into law can be traced back to the University of Leipzig in Germany in 1879.

York and a psychology professor at the John Jay College of Criminal Justice, “There are so many different things you can do in the field of forensic psychology, and it’s all so rewarding.” Necessary Skills Forensic psychologists work across numerous fields, so it is important for them to have a strong understanding of the criminal justice system and law. At the core, however, they are psychologists. The profession is demanding, and forensic psychologists need to have a vast array of clinical skills. While working in the field, forensic psychologists use a variety of resources: medical records, psychological tests and interviews, police and witness reports, examinations, and crime-scene evidence. They must have strong communication skills, including interviewing, report writing, and

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Introduction: Forensic Psychology at a Glance

The Clark Doll Experiment

In Brown v. Board of Education , the landmark 1954 U.S. Supreme Court case that resulted in the desegregation of public schools, child psychologists Kenneth and Mamie Clark provided a unique contribution. For years prior to the case, they had been conducting a simple psychological experiment to explore the detrimental impact of segregation on children of color. Children between the ages of three and seven were shown four dolls that were identical except in color. To test their racial perceptions, the children were asked to identify which doll was “good,” which was “bad,” and which they would prefer to play with. These “doll tests,” later referred to as the Clark Doll Experiment, demonstrated that the majority of children assigned positive qualities to the white dolls and showed preference for them. The important data gleaned from the doll experiments were used as evidence in the Brown v. Board of Education case and, along with the psychologists’ comprehensive analysis, helped sway the outcome. According to the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) Legal Defense and Educational Fund, the Supreme Court’s official ruling was influenced by one of Kenneth Clark’s papers. The ruling stated that “to separate [children of color] from others of similar age and qualifications solely because of their race generates a feeling of inferiority as to their status in the community that may affect their hearts and minds in a way unlikely to be undone.”

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Forensic Psychology

Kenneth and Mamie Clark conducted a simple psychological experiment to explore the detrimental impact of segregation on children of color.

public speaking, and must be critical thinkers. Forensic psychologists are often called on to testify in court, by both the prosecution and defense, so they must feel comfortable presenting data that is pertinent to a case and answering questions under oath. Careers in Forensic Psychology Because forensic psychology is a relatively young field, and the legal system continues to find new uses for this type of expertise, the outlook is bright. Careers in forensic psychology have experienced consistent growth over the past few years. While there is a lack of definitive data on the projected growth of employment in the specific field of forensic psychology in the coming years, employment of psychologists is expected to grow by 14 percent from 2018 to 2028, which is faster than the average rate of growth for all occupations,

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Introduction: Forensic Psychology at a Glance

Legal Psychology: A Different Take

When most people think of forensic psychology, they tend to focus on the practical application of helping to solve individual cases. Christopher Cronin, the author of the textbook Forensic Psychology: An Applied Approach , emphasizes how empirical research and experimentation in various areas of psychology can be applied to the legal arena in a broader sense. He describes legal psychology as “[t]he scientific study of the effect of the law on people, and the effect people have on the law.” Legal psychology includes studies on eyewitness identification, a child’s ability to testify competently, the validity of cognitive tests, the process of jury selection, and other issues that crop up within the legal system. Research into these areas is used not for a particular case but to help set legal standards, definitions, and procedures for wider use. according to the Bureau of Labor Statistics. Considering the consistent need within the criminal justice system for psychologists who specialize in legal matters, the field is promising for young career-seekers. Forensic psychologists can find various intellectually stimulating jobs in law enforcement. The agencies that utilize forensic psychologists include the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI); the U.S. Secret Service; the U.S. Department of Defense; local and state police departments; and county offices. Additionally, licensed forensic psychologists often have their own private practices and provide their services to law enforcement agencies, attorneys, or the courts on a case-by-case basis. Although many people associate forensic psychologists with law enforcement and profiling criminals, practitioners can opt to pursue careers on the other end of the spectrum as well. Some forensic psychologists work in clinical settings, such as prisons, psychiatric hospitals, and mental health centers. Within such environments, these professionals provide counseling and psychotherapy to criminals dealing with psychological issues or needing treatment. These efforts can also be geared toward rehabilitation and decreasing the chance of recidivism, or returning to prison once they have been released.

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Forensic Psychology

Career opportunities also exist within fields such as research, where forensic psychologists can contribute their skills to extracting data, developing the field, and advancing public policies within the judicial system. With a research focus, practitioners can find jobs as consultants or provide training and curriculum development for law enforcement and corrections agencies. Forensic psychologists can also go into training or teaching in undergraduate and graduate programs. According to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, the median annual salary for psychologists, including those in the field of forensics, is $79,010, or approximately $37.99 per hour, as of 2020. Career length has a significant effect on salary rate, and practitioners can expect their pay to increase steadily over time. However, compensation also depends on which agency or organization a practitioner works for, with state agencies tending toward the lower end of the spectrum in terms of salaries.

Forensic psychologists’ job functions may include testing suspects for mental illness.

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Introduction: Forensic Psychology at a Glance

Forensic psychologists are often called on to testify in court.

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Forensic Psychology